DOAN CHINH (*)  PHAM THI LOAN (**)

The Ly-Tran dynasties were recorded as the most prosperous and glorious age in the Vietnamese history with their achievements in many aspects, especially the values of culture and thought. During this period, Buddhism was in the leading position, and had major influence on spiritual, cultural and religious life of the Vietnamese. In addition, Confucianism as a politic- ethical doctrine step by step came to occupy its prominent position in constructing the government’s managing machine, in controlling society, and further influencing on the Vietnamese feudal society of centralized-power regime. In Vietnam, from Dinh dynasty to Le dynasty (10^th - 13^th centuries), state ownership of land property took a dominant position. Most of field and land belonged to the state or community; in addition, there were also state land and field as treasury of the royal court or belonged to Buddhist church. Since the 13^th century, the economy system based on the Eastern feudal mode of production came into being due to the economic policies which allowed and courage land trade and purchase, even with those farmsteads which still belonged to the mode of exploiting bondman in mixing with the mode of exploiting slave. In 1254, the Tran dynasty officially allowed to purchase public land of the community, and in 1266 noble aristocrats were allowed by the law to possess large farmsteads as their private land.(1) The appearance of industry-trade economy, with the increase of commodity exchange, which provided more important position for landowners’’ stratum in social life, they together influenced on many aspects of society, such as political and economic activities. During that time, aristocrat stratum had a tendency to withdraw from the royal court in order to strengthen their private farmstead, or develop their trade in land. All of these led to the dangers of political dissolution, and the tendency of reinforcing the bureaucracy machinery, appreciating Confucianism with the need of recruiting more Confucian scholars to take important positions in the royal court.  Since middle of the 13^th century, social structure of the leading class in Vietnamese society began to change. Before that time, if the stratum of governors consisted of aristocrat, meritorious official, bureaucracy, venerable bonze, but from this time on the structure of governor consisted of two distinct parts: the first one was aristocrat who took the highest position in the royal court, who possessed slaves, awarded land and private farmsteads...; and the other was Confucian bureaucracy, who were not aristocrat, and only as executors in the machine of the state. The changes of land property in economy and those ones in social class structure were the very conditions for Confucianism to infiltrate more deeply into Vietnamese society in this period.

On aspect of politics, with any class, if they had set up their ruling position in a society, certainly they need an ideology system which reflects and defends their class’s benefits, in order to consolidate their social position more firmly. Along with Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism were introduced into Vietnam rather early. Especially, under Ly-Tran dynasties Buddhism developed prosperously and was highly appreciated and treated as an orthodox religion by feudal government. But in its essence, Buddhism as the same as Taoism was not a political theory of controlling state. Professor Tran Van Giau wrote: “Although, in India and China there were monks who took position as capable advisors for some kings, but their initiatives were the results of applying Buddhist teachings creatively, in fact, Buddhist teachings never mention on politics.”(2) In Vietnam, under Ly-Tran dynasties Buddhism was an effective, creative and life-accepting religious teaching, but its whole system did not have any appropriate suggestion about the need of consolidating feudal government, such as: national sovereignty, state regulations, codes of protocol and ceremonies, or administrative system at various levels; even the question concerning family or means and methods of controlling the state, and  ruling the people... which specially interested the feudal ruling class. Confucianism, which imported into Vietnam since the early years of the Christian Era, following Chinese feudal invader’s foot, existed in Vietnam under many Chinese feudal dynasties, but right at the beginning it was considered as Han ruling invader’s instrument to carry out their scheme of assimilating the Vietnamese nation. That was why, when Confucianism was firstly imported, the Vietnamese had protested against it, in order to imply their spirit of national independence and sovereignty, to protect the Vietnamese ethnic, religion, custom, and heritage of traditional culture. Thus, during the long period of Han’s domination and later, under the first Vietnamese dynasties in independent period, Confucianism did not have its noticeable role in spiritual and political life of the Vietnamese society. Nevertheless, when there were changes in social framework on the foundation of new feudal  centralized-power regime, which was much or less influenced by the Han modality of Chinese feudal social institution, Confucianism again appeared to be appropriate, and came to be a spiritual requirement of scholastic learning for the Vietnamese. As a politic-ethical doctrine, Confucianism was advocated to unify national authority, totally under the emperor, to defend the orthodox, in fact it was to secure royal dynasties with the ruling families’ benefits and their noble status. Confucian doctrine also provided moral norms of people’s behavior, precept of moral bounds and constant virtues between king-subject, father-son, husband-wife, and the way of self-improvement, ...  which contributed important role to help many feudal dynasties to reinforce the ruling power of their class, to stabilize social order, that both Buddhism and Taoism could not do the same. Therefore, although dynasties during Ly-Tran period continuously provided condition for the three religions to develop together, and special appreciated Buddhism, but when they “want to control state, consolidate the feudal regime, which is as a small neighbor of China and influenced from China both on culture and ethnic, the Ly dynasty cannot help relying more on Confucianism”(3). Fundamentally, Ly and Tran dynasties also revered Buddhism, but to maintain their power and influence, their social, administrative organizations, these dynasties had to select another effective instrument, which was Confucianism. The tendency of harmonizing the three religions, firstly, it was the combination between Buddhism and Confucianism, which was prominently recorded in Buddhist literature under Ly-Tran dynasties. For example, in the preface of the book “Thien Tong Chi Nam” king Tran Thai Tong explained obviously the tasks of Buddhism: “Buddhism is the same every where, all people in the North or in the South can follow it to cultivate oneself, both the talent and the doltish should get enlightenment to reach ultimate achievement. As the means to attract and lead the dull-witted, or as the method to understand the reason of death and life, that is Buddha’s teaching. To provide the measure for later generation, the pattern for the future, is the holy mission”(4).

Generally speaking, Confucianism, with its theory should protect the association of family, the unity of individual and society around the court, to conserve the class division as position; with its capacity of synthesizing the association and the division on the ethical, political foundation, whose basis is in principles of ritual, legality, they were in mixed and deified, such as the God’s will, loyalty, three moral bounds and five virtues. All these had served the requirement of contemporary ruling class. That was the reason why, under the Ly-Tran dynasties the authorities even followed Buddhism, but Confucianism was more and more appreciated and developed its influence. Later on, Buddhism stepped back, and Confucianism, with its advantage in consolidating the monarchical centralized-power state and the social order of feudalism, gradually raised up, then developed vigorously. Its development was rather late but steadily. Because, together with the need of organizing and arranging society and constructing the administrative machine of the state, the development of Confucianism in Vietnam in that time also closely connected with the need of cultural and educational development.

When the feudal centralized-power regime came to stabilize and expand on large scale, the need of constructing and developing an independent, self-controlled culture and education was urgent question. In order to control the state power and influence, the Ly-Tran dynasties specially paid attention to developing their knowledge. At the same time, with the need of consolidating and developing the feudal state, they needed a new modality of education and recruitment to select better mandarins to add to their system, because the old way of nomination and appointment was not suitable. This requirement only could be met by developing a new education with system of national examination to select the talented. It was obvious in reality that, Buddhist teachings could not meet this historical mission, except Confucianism could do it well with its sufficient system of education and examination. Since then Confucianism took this opportunities to develop its roots deeply in socio-political life in Vietnam. Because, according to the former system of competition-examination, Confucianism not only directly impacted the formation of Vietnamese intellectual circle and the recruitment of talents for state machine, but also influenced the world viewpoint, political procedures and ethical norms of the Vietnamese. In addition, it also led to the fundamental changes in their manner of thinking, in creation of art and literature, and even in the social need and taste.

In 1070, the Ly dynasty built Van Mieu (Temple of Literature) then the first Confucian examination was opened in 1075 at this place. Competitions of “Mingjing boxue” (comprehension of the fundamental Confucian books) and “Ruxue sanchang” (Confucian studies at three academic levels) were the forms of Confucian competition-examination from that time and through the long history of Vietnam(5). In 1076, the Ly dynasty ordered to build Quoc Tu Giam (Imperial College) right at the center of the capital and “recruited the literates who selected to be mandarins to work in Quoc Tu Giam(6).  From this time, young generations of the Ly royal family were standard taught of Confucianism. It was the first Vietnamese university. In 1156, the Ly dynasty erected a temple to worship Confucius separately (before, Zhou Kung and Confucius were worshiped in the same temple, Van Mieu). This event shown “the tendency of developing Confucianism as a subject of monopoly, and worship Confucius, one of the famous masters (tzu), as a saint”(7). With the organization of Confucian competition-examination, the Ly dynasty was the first one in Vietnam to begin the long history of more than 800 years of national examination, and through this system to select talents for the state machine, to appreciate Confucianism’s position, to promote the teaching and expanding Confucianism.  However, under the Ly dynasty the education and examination were not organized regularly and lacked of distinctive regulations, that did not yet provide a thought about system of educating and training mandarin in Confucian framework of competition-examination.  Under the Tran dynasty, for the demand of building and defending the country, the requirement of recruiting talented persons for feudal bureaucratic machine, Confucian studies was promoted, more and more people changed their status by the examination-conscious way, and Confucian mandarins were more crowded. 

In 1227, one year after the Tran king’s enthronization, the first national examination of three religion was held by the dynasty. From that time on, national examinations were opened more regularly. In 1232, Tran dynasty opened the national examination of “Taixuesheng” (later called doctoral examination), and after 1246 this examination was opened formally every 7 years.  In 1304, there was a national competition of mandarins, total 44 contestants were awarded the prize Taixuesheng. This was the first time a feudal royal court awarded both knowledge and honorary of the successful contestants by “parading a procession with the three highest contestants of the examination, started at the Dragon gate and marching along the main streets of the capital for three days(8). Regarding about school, except state schools such as: Quoc Tu Vien (Imperial Institute), Quoc Hoc Vien (National Education Institute), Thai Hoc (Royal School), ... there were private schools as Tran Ich Tac school, Chu Van An school. The latter became more popular and attracted more learners around the country.  In 1236, the position of Thuong Thu Tri Quoc Tu Vien (Minister of Education of the Imperial Institute) was decided by the Tran dynasty, allowed children of Judicial mandarins to enroll to study in these schools. In 1397, the king issued an edict and decided the position of educational official, arranged the system of learning at district level, in order to recruit talented persons for royal court every year, all that reflected the development of training scale of The Tran dynasty’s Confucian education. Though, at the beginning of the Tran dynasty, Buddhism still influenced all aspects of social daily life, including education, examination, but later, in the end of the dynasty, Confucianism got higher position through people’s learning and competition-examination.  This fact was visible through the order of the Tran dynasty to establish Quoc Hoc Vien, erect Confucius, Zhou Gung and demi-saint Mencius statutes, and portray 72 Confucian deities to worship, or the “imperial decree to welcome all Confucians in the country to have lecture of Confucian six and four books at Quoc Tu Vien”(9) in 1253, or in 1272 king Tran Thanh Tong “issues an edict to recruit talented, virtuous persons, who are profound-of-Confucian-books to be the deputy of Tu Nghiep Quoc Tu Giam (Headmaster of Imperial College), and can together with the emperor to analyse, discuss Confucian books in royal palace”(10). Especially, in 1304, The Tran dynasty decided the content of Thai Hoc Sinh examination: “Regarding the rules of examination: Firstly, examination of dictation of the paper “Y Quoc” (to cure the country’s disease) and stories of Heaven’s son. Secondly, examination of the suspicions on the Books, the meanings of the Books, writing poetry, etc... Thirdly, examination of writing edict, decree and petition response on be half of the king. Fourthly, examination of contestant’s own viewpoint to resolve the country’s problems.”(11) In the last period of the Tran dynasty, when Ho Quy Ly controlled the state power, he specially developed Confucian education. He modified the examination to meet the need of reality, such as: decide the examination of mathematics and dictation as the first degree at provincial level, encourage using Nom character, sponsor to translate Shu ching (Book of History) into Nom (character) to make it easy to learn by common people.  It was easy to see that, under the Tran dynasty, Confucianism developed vigorously and influenced the feudal system of education and examination, built up a strong effective staff of Confucian intelligentsia, that promoted the national knowledge and education, constructed a culture full of Confucian character.

Along with developing education and examination, Vietnamese feudal regime needed to develop other new specialties of knowledge in order to build  a culture with its own identity, that could face all hostile enemies’ schemes from outside, as the same as their assimilation inside. From the Ly dynasty onwards, there were certain development in field of science, creation of art, that were also appeared on domains of politics, law, literature and national history. Confucianism, on behalf as a doctrine of politic-ethics, used literature to express doctrines, used history to teach and educate people, and it also  involved other fields as astronomy, geography, citizen,... and step by step integrate into the thought and culture of Vietnamese social life, and created important premises for its vigorous development under the Tran dynasty as well as in later centuries. The obvious mark, which shew the existence of Confucianism in the field of thought, socio-politics right under the Ly dynasty, was the Ly Cong Uan’s (means king Ly Thai To) “Chieu Doi Do” (Royal Decree of Moving the Capital City). In this decree, Ly Cong Uan quoted classic references about the kings Ban Canh, Thanh Vuong under the age of the Three Grandfathers, in order to assert that his policy of moving the capital city was correct, to pursuer noble cause, and long-term strategy for their children in future(12). Confucians under the Tran dynasty also expressed their desire to build a society in accordance with Confucian conception, such as the symbol of the emperors Yao and Shun, Van Vuong, Thanh Thang...  For example, in the Phu Lau Can Chinh (Qin zenglou fu, means Poetic essay on the Can Chinh palace), Nguyen Phap advised the king to concentrate on controlling the country by virtue-control doctrine of Confucianism(13). Many classic references and Confucian patterns were treated by Confucian mandarins under Ly-Tran dynasties as  lessons  of  experiences, exemplary model of controlling state, ruling the people, building a feudal society peacefully, prosperously.

Confucian thought of “Heaven”, “Providence’s will” were popularly accepted by the kings and mandarins during Ly-Tran dynasty, this shew the wide and deep influence of mystical idealistic conception of Han Confucianism.  The even of the enthronement of Ly Cong Uan was explained that “to respond to Providence’s will, to assent to people’s hope, and it is the age for people opportunities”(14). When move the capital to Thang Long, Ly Cong Uan also adduced “Providence’s will, people’s hope” as the reason for this policy. Ly Thuong Kiet’s immortal verse, The Southern Country’s Mountain and River speaking about the resistance against Sung invaders (1075-1077) also asserted that Dai Viet’s independence and sovereignty was  the fact conforming to Providence’s will, and decided in advance in Providence’s book:

Over the southern  mountains and rivers

The Emperor of the South shall reign,

That was written down in the Book of Heaven

 In addition, other conception considering emperor as an executor who carried out Providence’s command, between Providence and men there was a mutual sympathetic relation, that also reflected the trace of the Han Confucian thought of “tien-ren ganying” (mutual sympathy between Heaven and man), and “tian-ren xiangyu” (similarity between man and Heaven).

 Under Ly-Tran dynasties, Confucian ethical categories, such as: fidelity, benevolence, righteousness ... were applied into politics and they came to be ethical norms for every one’s behavior in social life. King Ly Thai Tong did not regret his words to praise Le Phung Hieu’s virtue of fidelity: “While reading the history of Tang dynasty I learned that YuChi JingDe helped his king in danger, then I came to think myself that in future not any subject could compare with him. Now, in emergency, I come to understand that Phung Hieu even more loyal than JingDe (敬德)”(15). Under the Tran reign, proceeding form contemporary reality of building and defending the country, loyalty and righteousness were emphasized as an important demand to solders and general in their resistance to defend the country, to ensure safe and security for the royal court. Tran Quoc Tuan, who was evaluated as “a stratagem hero, with consistent loyalty and righteousness”(16), in his “Hich Tuong Si” (Proclamation to Officers and soldiers) had referred to inviolable fidelity examples of Chinese historical heroes, such as Ji Xin, Yu, Yu Jang, Shen K’uai ... in order to teach his solders, and encouraged their loyalty towards royal court and the country(17). Generally, Confucian thought in Ly –Tran period emphasized the question of socio-politics with the issues on ideal specimen of Vietnamese feudal society, on the control policies, on constructing the machine of feudal government, on the  integrity of a fidelity subject or righteousness soldier ... Those issues closely influenced the development of feudal autocracy, centralized-power regime in Vietnam that time, and contributed its part to consolidate the feudal society, provided a social order according to moralist and legalist theory serving the requirement of building and defending the country. Even though, under the Tran dynasty, Confucianism was not yet a decisive factor for the development of the socio-politic thought. But only the abundant and vigorous reality of the Vietnamese people’s task of building and defending the country did this indispensable role. All Confucian concepts, which were applied by the Ly –Tran kings and mandarins, and also contained practical meaning and familiar to the national resistance. Nevertheless, because Confucianism was feudal class’ ideology, which closely connected with the task of consolidating the ruling class’s position, so that along with its development, it revealed its weakness and shortcoming from time to time. For example, routine and bookish became bad habit in the field of thought and ideology, in education and examination ... from time to time this way spoiled capacity of creation, and expanded the disease of imitating the given pattern servilely.

At the end of the 14^th century, Confucianism developed strongly, took the dominant position in the royal court and influenced deeply into Dai Viet’s spiritual life on various aspects. Confucian education took the leading position in the national education. Confucian circle grew in number, they actively took political works of the country, strove for Confucian ideal, researched perspectives of politics, society, ethics... , that made an animate view of cultural and philosophical activities in Vietnam that time. In addition, in the last period of  the Tran dynasty, Vietnamese feudal society felt into crisis.   The over-development of Buddhism caused heavy social consequences, such as: many aristocrats made corrupt use of religion to build and erect numerous Buddhist pagodas and statues; pagodas processed a lot of land and fields, spent lots of money, about more than half of population converted to be Buddhist believers. Buddhism began to be criticized by Confucians, this tendency came to be more noisily. This fact reflected the remained contradictions in feudal society between on side of influential royal families, with large patrimony, supporting Buddhism, and the other side of maternal ones, who established their position through talent and wisdom. From Confucian perspective Le Van Huu condemned their wasted money and power in building pagodas and towers, and said that it was “the exploitation of the people’s blood”(18). Truong Han Sieu also denounced that monks arrogated lots of fields and buildings by force, and hunted up many beautiful sites. He blamed the harm reason which damaged national production for the over-development of Buddhism. He wrote that “Half of all the elegant and discreet places around the country were occupied with pagodas. The clique of dark and yellow robes are crowded in pagodas, they eat but do not work to earn themselves, they wear but do not weave themselves. Most of them are the rabbles without family and native village, and follows each other to convert to Buddhism”(19). Some Confucians not only criticized the evils and negative consequences caused by the boisterous development of Buddhism, but also attacked the teachings of Buddhism. In an epitaph of Thien Phuc pagoda, Le Quat wrote that Buddhist temples used the “weal and woe”, “misfortune and happiness” to delude common people’s belief, made them to follow Buddhism. Truong Han Sieu, in his tablet of the Linh Te tower, abused that Buddhist followers were ghost, devilish, and Buddhist teachings only deludes living beings(20). While attacking and boycotting Buddhism, the Tran Confucians appreciated Confucianism and controlled the thought-battlefield.    Truong Han Sieu assumed that “Now, Confucian sages want to develop the education, in order to innovate the corrupt custom. Superstition must be destroyed, right religion should be restored. To be a Confucian scholar or high-ranking mandarin, never discusses anything with the king except Shun Emperor’s words and teachings; never narrate any doctrine except Confucius and Mencius’ doctrines (21). Especially, while criticizing Buddhism, Le Van Huu always praised Buddhism as the theoretical foundation for every political activities of the royal court. In the last period of the Tran dynasty, Confucian circle more and more decided their significant position in society, and they “have enough ascendancy, not only to object openly some prerogatives of the Tran aristocrats, but also directly attacked Buddhism when it was even a royal religion”(22). The struggle against Buddhism, at the same time could affirm the position of Confucianism in ideological, cultural life and prepare social and spiritual forces for Confucians to enter the political arena; this also gave signals of the decline of Buddhism not only in reality, but also in philosophical-ideological field and social conscious formation. From this time on, Vietnamese Buddhism did not take the important position in political, ideological field as before, but Confucianism, under good objective conditions for its development, step by step came to hold the decisive position of spiritual life of the Vietnamese. r 

                                                                  (Translated by Hoang Thi Tho)