Under the early Le dynasty, in the 15^th century, Vietnamese feudal regime thrived and reached its peak under Le Thanh Tong’s reign. But from the beginning of the 16^th to the 17^th century it fell into crisis and regress. This forced Confucianism, which was the dominating ideological system of Vietnamese feudal regime in that time, to change in order to fit the contemporary situation.  Therefore, in this period many problems relating to the content and form of contemporary Confucianism happened.

As we know, from the death of Le Hien Tong (1504) to the usurpation of Mac Dang Dung (1527) there were five kings of the Le dynasty, they continuously reigned through merciless civil wars for the highest power. Because the kings of Le dynasty did not hold their power and influence, so that their throne, if had not fallen into Mac Dang Dung’s hand, certainly would have fallen into other feudal groups. It is possible to say that, the end of the Le dynasty was unavoidable in that time.

The Mac dynasty replaced the Le’s and continuously raised the flag of Confucianism treated it as the foundation for every political operation. But, with the replacement of the Le by Mac dynasty, there were divisions of attitudes among Confucians. Many Confucians openly adhered to the Le’s, they defamed Mac Dang Dung, and willingly sacrificed themselves for the Le’s. Some Confucian mandarins renounced to live in solitude in remote country. But one part of Confucian mandarins continued to work in the Mac’s administrative system. In facing the attitude of the Le’s Confucians, Mac Dang Dung decided to organize national examinations to recruit officials for the new bureaucratic machine, who adhered to the Mac dynasty. This was one of the reasons why the Mac dynasty ruled only about 65 years, but had organized 22 national examinations every thee years. In 1529, the second year of his throne, Mac Dang Dung held the first national examination and recruited 27 contestants. In the same year, Mac Dang Dung also followed the kings of the Le dynasty to erect memorial steles of Confucian doctors with the aim to courage people to learn and take part in national examinations.  However, not every trained and graduated Confucians under the Mac dynasty adhered to the it. Among them, some ones resigned off Confucian mandarin to live in seclusion, as Nguyen Binh Khiem, some others followed the Trinh family (the Trinhs), as Phung Khac Hoan, Luong Huu Khanh.

Under the Mac dynasty, although Confucianism was still considered as the fundamental ruling doctrine, but the leading class, Confucian circle, and common people did not believe in Confucian doctrine as well as its defense for the basic principles of the centralized monarchy regime. Because, Confucianism appeared to be un-capable to support the king to govern the state, to control the people, to provide the nation peace and prosperity, with wise king and loyal subjects, and harmony people. That was why many Confucians were not much interested in the purpose of governing the state, pacifying the world. In that time this purpose often closely connected with theory monarchy and loyal to the king. In other words, Vietnamese Confucians hesitated and did not know which one to adhere. The matter was the shift of the authority from one feudal group to other in the 16^th century, so that the traditional conception of “being loyal to the king” in Confucian canon needed to be reinterpreted to fit with the changing situation of the age.

In facing the shift of royal dynasties and rapid change of people’s fates, Confucians under the Mac dynasty had developed the law of change in the Book of Change, and even astrology, metaphysic thought (Li studies) of Sung Confucianism in order to interpret all changes of society and human. Nguyen Binh Khiem, an erudite Confucian mandarin, a great thinker under the Mac dynasty said that: "Reflecting on the eight trigrams to understand the universal circle.” (Wrote at Trung Tan House)§ and “The even and odd, the full and less balance each other naturally. The rise and fall of Yin and Yang mutual complete each other.” (By Reading Zhou’s The Book of Change)§§ As the same as many Confucians in the 16^th century, Nguyen Binh Khiem understood the impuissant of man, especially the impotent of Confucian in front of the contemporary situation. Therefore, they believed more in God’s will, and man’s fate under God’s will. Nguyen Binh Khiem many times mentioned the “celestial power”. He often advised that: “Win or lost, wealthy or poor, all depend on God’s will. It is nonsense to jostle.” (The Nom Poetry, p. 87) Not only Confucians, but also most of common people did believe in fate, deities and super-forces. Indeed, in the war time, Confucianism could not help to explain every complicated phenomenon in the society, and did not provide any belief or satisfy their spiritual lives. That was why Buddhism and Taoism had opportunities to restored and developed again, along with the decline of Confucianism.

While royals, lords and marquis followed each other to build big pagodas, donate paddy-fields to pagoda estates, Confucianism was not pure, and not as the unique viewpoint in contemporary Confucians’ horizon to evaluate every thing. Nguyen Binh Khiem had combined Confucianism with Taoism, and Nguyen Du had combined Confucianism with Taoist religion. Nguyen Du’s book “Truyen Ky Man Luc” (The Vast Record of Strange Tales) also recorded these combinations. 

Confucians under the Mac dynasty were interested in not only socio-political, ethic issues, but also those of philosophy, such as destiny, human love, natural reason, yin-yang, misfortune and fortune, reputation – nameless, order-disorder ..., with the aim to explain the rapid, complicated changes of society and human life. For this reason, Nguyen Binh Khiem had to accept Sung Confucianism, first of all, as the Lixue (Li studies) of Cheng Hao and Zhou Xi, and Shao Yung’s numerological method of prediction (Shuxue). This was rewritten by Nguyen Binh Khiem’s disciples after his decease:

“The six Books of history and poetry as a ship of knowledge transferred him to landing-stage of Zhou Xi

The book of “Tai Yi” in mind should light up Yang Xiong deep thought. 

About every thing, together with Chou Kung to talk

Learning deduction and generalization from Shao Yung method.”

The foundation of the Mac’s royal dynasty neither resolved social conflicts, nor stopped the civil war among feudal groups, contrarily this foundation even made the civil war more violently. When Mac Dang Dung had ascended, the former Le dynasty’s mandarins, commanders and generals revolted in many places. One of the most remarkable rebellions was headed by Nguyen Kim. Nguyen Kim put Le Duy Ninh on the throne, with slogan of restoring the Le dynasty in order to gather forces to protest against the Mac’s. Nguyen Kim occupied Thanh Hoa province and from there to launch an attack to the North. When Nguyen Kim was poisoned to death, his son in law, Trinh Kiem took the throne instead. The fight between the Trinhs and the Macs was the war between two feudal groups. One was of the Mac’s in Thang Long, called the Northern Dynasty. Another was of the Trinhs with slogan of “restoration of the Les” from Thanh Hoa towards the South, called the Southern Dynasty. The Trinh-Mac war lasted long until 1592. And during this war time, the germ of the second civil war emerged. That was the conflict between the Trinhs and the Nguyens inside the feudal group of the Southern Dynasty. When the Trinhs had destroyed the Macs the strife between the Trinhs and the Nguyens became severe, that lead to the war of Trinh-Nguyen.  This war again drew much people into blood and fire, and again divided the country into two parts, South and North ones.

War and violence had become common trick and scheme used by feudal groups in their struggle for the throne. As a result, the people’s aspiration of living in peace and harmony was reflected in contemporary Confucian’s thought through their conceptions on the rule by virtue, on benevolence and righteousness. In Truyen Ky Man Luc (The Vast Record of Strange Tales) Nguyen Du wrote: “A king should consider his own feeling and thought as the basic root to govern the court, to control mandarins, and to rule the whole people” (Conversation with a woodcutter on Na mountain). And Phung Khac Hoan also emphasized: “Only by uninterrupted fights for super power and throne, no one evaluates the strong and magnanimous will of Vietnamese Confucians. But in our culture and civilization, war and fighting were never appreciated”, “In regarding the tactics of defending the nation and save the country and people, Confucians can afford the Majesty their charity and justice”. But, in war and violence of the age, the sound of benevolence and righteousness, and the rule of virtue appeared to be not much power, not as the same as Confucian’s voice under the Tran and early Le dynasties. 

In facing the scuffle among feudal groups, Confucians had to rethink the traditional conception of “being loyal to the king” and the doctrine of “governing the state, controlling the world” in new context of the age. Naturally, a Confucian mandarin had to decide to adhere to a king and serve a certain feudal group. Confucian orthodox thought had its certain influence on the Confucian mandarins in the 16^th and the 17^th centuries. For example, Phung Khac Hoan renounced the Mac’s government, went through a lot of trouble to Thanh Hoa in order to support the movement of restoration of the Le dynasty. It was a historical proof. In addition, while the Trinhs controlled all power and influence, but they still had to raise highly the slogan “Restore the Le dynasty”. It was obvious that they did not break out of the influence of Confucian orthodox thought, though the Trinhs also dreamed of the throne.

During the civil war, all feudal groups, either the North dynasty or the South one, either the Trinh’s government in the North Vietnam or the Nguyen’s in the South, clung to Confucian flag, and considered it as fundamental foundation for making all their decisions and policies, to organize and manage all social activities. Therefore, every feudal group endeavored to develop the schooling, and national examination with Confucian mode, as well as to propagate Confucian theories to civilize the people, to recruit talented persons.

The restored Le family, when had occupied the South Vietnam, from Thanh Hoa towards the South, organized three royal examinations  (Che khoa ) in 1553, 1575 and 1577, recruited 28 contestant doctors. Subsequently, the Trinhs again organized other Confucian examinations to find talents. Right at the begining of the 17^th century, the Trinh dynasty in the North continuously executed Hong Duc’s regulations of education and examination, though there were only some small adjustments and supplementations, not really fundamental ones. In the South, Nguyen Lords executed education and examination in accordance with Confucian system, though they obeyed the Hong Duc regulations, but also needed some adjustment to suit with cultural, political situation there. For example, the Southern government renovated the academic distinction of the graduated Confucians, arranged more different kinds and levels of examination. In 1660, the first examination organized in the South Vietnam recruited 5 highest contestants of political career (sinh do), and 15 contestants of Chinese language (hoa van). In 1674, together with examination of political career and Chinese language, Nguyen Lords again organized an examination of administrative career (tham phong) and selected 7 contestants.  In 1675, Nguyen Phuc Lord opened an examination of Chinh do and recruited 3 giam sinhs, 8 sinh dos, 15 nhien hocs, 22 hoa vans, 10 tham daos. Those changes of education and examination  originated from cultural condition of the South and Nguyen Lord’s requirement of constructing its administrative mechanism.

The restoration of Buddhism and Taoism began under the Mac dynasty, and continuously developed in the 17^th century. Trinh Lord as the same as Nguyen Lord esteemed Buddhism. In the North, Trinh Ta reconstructed Tay Phuong pagoda. And in the South, Nguyen Hoang erected Thien Mu pagoda (1601), Hoa Vang pagoda (1667), and repaired My Am pagoda (1667). In the 17^th century, there were also series of Chinese Zen masters came into Vietnam, both in the North and the South, to transmit Zen Buddhism. In this time, there were the first signs of prosperity of Taoism. Such as, Trinh Ta reconstructed Tran Vo Taoist temple, and caste d Tran Vo bronze statute.  In addition, many Confucians gave up mandarin career to follow Taoist meditation to become immortal, in that time Pham Vien was a famous immortal.

The prosperity of Buddhism and Taoism in Vietnam in the 17^th century proved that, due to its limitation, shortcoming and negative side, Confucianism had to step back and gave up its position to Buddhism and Taoism. The shortcomings of Confucianism in Vietnam at that time appeared, firstly in its theoretical meanings. It was the decrease of ruling class’s and Confucian’s belief in Confucian’s values and effectiveness on aspect of the outlook on life and its doctrine of governing state. As a doctrine of governing state, Confucianism even could not help Vietnamese Confucians to stop the civil war, to stabilize social life. As the outlook on life, Confucianism could not explain the root of all worldly sufferings and people’s tragic fates. In this context, Confucianism’s theory of God’s will or Heaven’s reason appeared to be so simple, limited and could not satisfy the need of the contemporary society. In conclusion, during the long time, from the Mac dynasty to the period of restoration of the Le dynasty, not nay religion, even Buddhism or Taoism, should replace Confucianism’s position as the doctrine of governing state, or theory of organizing society and administrative organization. That was the reason why either the Trinh dynasty in the North or the Nguyen one in the South had to appreciate Confucianism and developed its education and examination regularly. Therefore, many generations of Confucians were trained, reproduced one after another, and became the social foundation for the existence of Confucianism in feudal society in Vietnam. r